Project management is not just about the 'tools' we use it is as much Essay

Project management is not just about the 'tools' we use it is as much as anything about people - how they interact, how they - Essay Example Furthermore, I will discuss the project lifecycle and the different processes that go with it. And finally, the importance of people in the success of a project will be investigated before concluding. For a project to be successful, the project manager must understand the different characteristics of a project. A project has a start and end dates. It has dates that properly specify when the project activities will start and when it is going to end. It uses resources – time, money, people and equipment. And finally, a project has an outcome - whether it’s a new condominium, building, satellite or a new highway. ‘A project is considered successful if it delivers the outcome with an agreed quality, does not overrun its end date and remains within the budget (cost resources). Note however, that outcome, time and budget are interrelated, and during a project the project manager may need to do trade-offs between them’ (Singh). Say for instance, if you want the pr oject to be done more quickly, you have to pump in more money for additional resources like people, time and equipment. Because of the increasing competition in the business environment, organisations are forced to come-up with high quality products at a lower cost and in a shorter time. And that’s the reason why project management exists. Project management allows the project manager to plan and organise resources to achieve a specified outcome within the allotted timeframe. The techniques of project management allow the project manager to manage and anticipate risks in a structured manner. Through proper project management better utilisation of resources, shorter development time, reduced costs, interdepartmental cooperation and a better focus on results and quality is achieved. ‘A project has a lifecycle. It starts with the initiating process, then the planning, executing, controlling and monitoring and the last phase is closing’ (Singh). Throughout this lifec ycle people are employed to do the tasks. The workforce spells the success or failure of a project. But before a project starts, a project manager should be appointed. As a project manager, he must have the Project Charter or commercial contract to get the wheels spinning in motion. At the minimum, the Project Charter designates the person as the project manager with the authority to use resources to bring the project to completion. This is formally done by the project sponsor or main stakeholders. The charter provides a short description of the result, outcome, product or services to be produced by the project. It also refers to the commercial contract (if there is a formal contract) as the basis for initiating the project. During the initiating process, the project manager refines the project goals, reviews the expectations of all stakeholders and determines assumptions and risks in the project. This is also the time when he selects the people to form the project team. However, th ere are times when the project team has already been imposed. If that’s the case, the role of the project manager is to familiarise himself to their skills and understands their roles in the project. He should ask the project sponsor and main stakeholders to share with him any emails, letters, memos, project feasibility, meeting minutes, requirements or other documents related

Psychology and New Technology Program Essay Example for Free

Psychology and New Technology Program Essay ABC Corporation has made a decision to purchase a new technology program for their employees. Because this technology program is new, employees ranging from age 17- 70 needs to be train. Training must be complete with six months. Before training is implement, four fundamental principles of adult education, including psychological, sociocultural, biological, and cognitive must be analyze. Because of the age range it would feasible to divide the employee into two groups. First group is Young learners (YL) age group 17-25 and the second group is Adult learners (AL) age group 26-71. The AL group will require multiple sessions because of the number of employee in this group. Before training begins, both groups must prepare for learning, therefore an open discussion regarding the new technology program, training plan process and how it will affect the employees will be discuss, this discussion will gain support and full participation from the employees. After analyzing both groups, the biological factor for the YL group will not have a strong impact. Most young learner between the ages of 17-25 is computer knowledgeable and is familiar with the 21st century social media and is open for change with new technology. YL group would benefit from Web-Based Training (WBT) instead of the traditional classroom forum. Many young leaners prefer a teaching method that would keep them engaged, and eager. WBT is the delivery method for the YL group. The adult learners (AL) ages 26-70 may not be a computer literate and would benefit from the traditional classroom approach. The AL group would require the adult educator to have patience, slow lecturing, plenty of hands on exercise, and frequent breaks. Hands on exercise are a memory factor that would benefit the AL group two months after been train. Most adults learners tend to forget what they have learned. Information that goes into adult leaner memory is memorize if the learner practices remembering the information soon after he or she learns it. Psychological factors deals with individuals’ way of thinking and learning. Separating the groups would allow the employees to learn and collaborate within their age group. Developing two groups will allow the learners to relate to each other, and feel comfortable learning. Training both groups together would be challenging for the adult educator as well as the employees. The possibility of redundant questions would slow down the class, which could result in less participation. Cognitive factor is the process of obtaining knowledge through experiences. The Adult learner (AL) is in charge of their own learning. They focus on what will advance their career and life circumstances. The Young learners (YL) rely on others to tell them what they should learn. Both groups learning environment has an impact on how well they comprehend the new technology program. The YL group would benefit from a self pace, web base training module or a stimulation module with active interaction of practical and theory scenarios. Each module will require an assessment and a passing score of 90% or higher to advance to the next module. This learning style would allow the YL group to continue to make use of 21st technology. The AL group would not benefit from web base training. Most adult learners are not comfortable learning new technology, in this case the employees does not have an option. The AL group who is not adaptive to change would find it challenging to learn a new technology program via a computer; this would be an internal factor that may take time to overcome. The job of the trainer is to make the learner apart of the learning process, by asking for volunteers, or asking experiences related questions. The AL groups are concern with why and how to apply this new technology. Sociocultural deals with how adults deal with individual learning and how learning takes place. Dividing employees into separate groups will be beneficial at the end of training. Both groups can relate to their own learning team. The YL group want experience classroom group interaction with their team. Web-based training (WBT) is similar to distance learning. There will be online discussion, and e-mail dialogue. The AL group will build possibly new relationships, interact more, discuss challenges, and success. In conclusion, in order for the ABC Company to be effective with the new technology program, the recommendation is to divide the employees into separate groups, and categorize them as Adult Learner (AL), Young Learners (YL). This approach would be beneficial from the adult learner perspective and applying the four fundamental principles, simplifies the training plan and the assurance that training will be complete successfully within six months. Afterward employees will be able to apply the new concepts, and best practices of the new technology program.

Graduation Speech: I Have No Regrets :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

I thought that I'd start by taking a picture, being as this is the last time that I'm going to see the majority of you. So could everybody smile? OK, now that that is done with, I would like to start out with a quote. "As people used to be wrong about the motion of the sun, so they are still wrong about the motion of the future. The future stands still, it is we who move in infinite space." (Rainer Maria Rilke, German poet). Webster's dictionary describes commencement as a beginning. Perhaps many of you believed that commencement was an ending. So instead of today being an ending, it is a day to celebrate a new beginning. But the big question is the beginning of what? It has been 13 long years since that first day of kindergarten. It may seem ages ago, but that was only one beginning. This first chapter of our lives is now ending, and we are here today to celebrate the beginning of the next, new stage in our life. It's sad, but true, that after this day, we are all going to go our separate ways. Some of us are headed to college, while others are going to work, or already own their own business. Whatever it is, it is going to be something different than any of us are used to. Even though this is a celebration of a new beginning, we couldn't possibly move on without remembering the past. I don't know about everybody else, but even now, this still feels unreal. I have been waiting for this day since sixth grade, and it is strange that it is finally here. I have had so much fun these past 13 years with all of the friends that I have made. I want to thank everybody for all of the memories throughout the years. It was you guys that made school fun and interesting. From back in elementary school getting intense on the four square court or playing some tetherball, to the Friday night football games and volleyball matches, and the whole time enjoying every minute of it just because I was hanging out with my friends. I hope that you made your time here was worth it because you have to live your life to the fullest. We don't know how long we have on this planet so cherish every moment like it is your last.

Lack of Discipline in Children

Lack of Discipline in Children ENG 101 Evelyn Hill January 28, 2013 Walk into any public and look around; what do you see? Most people would say; products, people, families, and children. Next, watch some of the children for just a minute and listen to them. There are probably some children playing hide and seek from their parents in the racks of cloths, others are opening the packages of toys, and of course, there’s the one child who is screaming all through the store because his mom told him he couldn’t have something he wanted.Don’t worry, that will soon cease when mom gets tired of hearing the screaming and will give in. This is just an example of public places almost anywhere in the United States; children pitching a fit because they don’t get what they want. While all children pitch fits at some point in their young lives, they also need to be taught that it is not appropriate behavior. We need to discipline our children so they have the knowledge an d skills to act in accordance with the rules of society.While only a few years ago many families had the luxury to only need one income in a household, things have changed and it’s no longer feasible for only one parent to work. This change in the economy has led to an increase of children being left with a babysitter or put in a child care facility. I see many children in the center that I work at, who are at school for ten to twelve hours a day. This is leaving a parents job up to a teacher of six to twenty-five children, discipline included.I’m hoping that my paper will offer some insight to parents who are looking for ways to discipline their child without much of the screaming, fighting, frustration, and physical and mental issues that may attach with the use of corporal punishment. Discipline is the structure that helps a child fit into society happily and effectively; key words being structure. Children need structure whether they are at home or in day care, thi s enables children to know when and where it is appropriate to play and be loud. With this being said, there are several ways in which a parent can teach a child appropriate behavior.First of all, discipline should always be given by an adult in whom the child has a bond. Discipline should always be consistent as well. Allowing a child to get away with opening a toy in a store without purchasing the item first, after the child was disciplined for the same thing before, only confuses the child. Next, the child should think the discipline is fair and it should not be something that you as the parent cannot hold your word. For example, many children will not think that getting a spanking is fair, nor would they think be grounded for a month would be fair.Telling a child they are grounded for a month is not a reasonable punishment because parents forget or they get tired of hearing the child whine about being grounded and give up. Lastly, discipline should be close to the time of the un desired behavior, meaning, if a child was hitting another child on the playground, the parent should take care of it as soon as possible, not hours after because the child may remember the behavior or remember why they were hitting. In my experience, the best way to discipline a child is by simply talking to them.Children respond much better when an adult talks to them about misbehavior than they do if they are being yelled at. Yelling at a child causes resentment towards the adult which will later cause more undesired behavior. I usually ask the child what he was doing, if he thinks that behavior is appropriate, and what he can do to fix it. Children usually have pretty good ideas of their own as far as what they think is fair where discipline is concerned. If there is the situation in which the child is really upset or I can feel myself getting frustrated, I call for a five minute time out for both of us.I have the child sit down and I walk away, when we are both ready to talk aga in we do. Children need to know that rules are established so that they can learn to live cooperatively with others, so they can learn right from wrong, and to protect them from harm. Without rules and consequences to these rules children never learn how to act in accordance to the rules of society. It’s not easy disciplining a child nor is there a quick fix to behavior problems, but even two parents who work twelve hours a day can deter many behavioral issues by simply talking to their children.Children need structure at home just as much as they do at school, without it, children are lost; they are confused about when and where it is okay to play and be loud. Discipline needs to be given by an adult whom the child trusts and loves and it should be seen as â€Å"fair† by the child, discipline should be consistent and close to the time of the undesired behavior, and lastly, children need to understand that discipline is only to keep them safe. I am confident that any p arent who takes the time to talk to their children about the child’s mistakes will have a much better behaved child. Lack of Discipline in Children Lack of Discipline in Children ENG 101 Evelyn Hill January 28, 2013 Walk into any public and look around; what do you see? Most people would say; products, people, families, and children. Next, watch some of the children for just a minute and listen to them. There are probably some children playing hide and seek from their parents in the racks of cloths, others are opening the packages of toys, and of course, there’s the one child who is screaming all through the store because his mom told him he couldn’t have something he wanted.Don’t worry, that will soon cease when mom gets tired of hearing the screaming and will give in. This is just an example of public places almost anywhere in the United States; children pitching a fit because they don’t get what they want. While all children pitch fits at some point in their young lives, they also need to be taught that it is not appropriate behavior. We need to discipline our children so they have the knowledge an d skills to act in accordance with the rules of society.While only a few years ago many families had the luxury to only need one income in a household, things have changed and it’s no longer feasible for only one parent to work. This change in the economy has led to an increase of children being left with a babysitter or put in a child care facility. I see many children in the center that I work at, who are at school for ten to twelve hours a day. This is leaving a parents job up to a teacher of six to twenty-five children, discipline included.I’m hoping that my paper will offer some insight to parents who are looking for ways to discipline their child without much of the screaming, fighting, frustration, and physical and mental issues that may attach with the use of corporal punishment. Discipline is the structure that helps a child fit into society happily and effectively; key words being structure. Children need structure whether they are at home or in day care, thi s enables children to know when and where it is appropriate to play and be loud. With this being said, there are several ways in which a parent can teach a child appropriate behavior.First of all, discipline should always be given by an adult in whom the child has a bond. Discipline should always be consistent as well. Allowing a child to get away with opening a toy in a store without purchasing the item first, after the child was disciplined for the same thing before, only confuses the child. Next, the child should think the discipline is fair and it should not be something that you as the parent cannot hold your word. For example, many children will not think that getting a spanking is fair, nor would they think be grounded for a month would be fair.Telling a child they are grounded for a month is not a reasonable punishment because parents forget or they get tired of hearing the child whine about being grounded and give up. Lastly, discipline should be close to the time of the un desired behavior, meaning, if a child was hitting another child on the playground, the parent should take care of it as soon as possible, not hours after because the child may remember the behavior or remember why they were hitting. In my experience, the best way to discipline a child is by simply talking to them.Children respond much better when an adult talks to them about misbehavior than they do if they are being yelled at. Yelling at a child causes resentment towards the adult which will later cause more undesired behavior. I usually ask the child what he was doing, if he thinks that behavior is appropriate, and what he can do to fix it. Children usually have pretty good ideas of their own as far as what they think is fair where discipline is concerned. If there is the situation in which the child is really upset or I can feel myself getting frustrated, I call for a five minute time out for both of us.I have the child sit down and I walk away, when we are both ready to talk aga in we do. Children need to know that rules are established so that they can learn to live cooperatively with others, so they can learn right from wrong, and to protect them from harm. Without rules and consequences to these rules children never learn how to act in accordance to the rules of society. It’s not easy disciplining a child nor is there a quick fix to behavior problems, but even two parents who work twelve hours a day can deter many behavioral issues by simply talking to their children.Children need structure at home just as much as they do at school, without it, children are lost; they are confused about when and where it is okay to play and be loud. Discipline needs to be given by an adult whom the child trusts and loves and it should be seen as â€Å"fair† by the child, discipline should be consistent and close to the time of the undesired behavior, and lastly, children need to understand that discipline is only to keep them safe. I am confident that any p arent who takes the time to talk to their children about the child’s mistakes will have a much better behaved child.

Balance in the administration of justice

The term justice refers to canal provision of rights to every citizen in a given century. This concerns equal distribution and proper allocation of good things like wealth, and power. For a country to have justice in practice, people should be governed by laws which are well defined in a constitution. Such laws assures citizens freedom in all their activities for instance, one can have a freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom of movement among others. Through justice, one should have a right of access of any requirement like medical care, job opportunities, education and also settlement.At the same time, a country should ensure retributive of justice which mainly deals with rights response to law violators. This is facilitated by penalties administered to wrong doing. The major issues concerning legal environment in which justice and security administration operates includes natural laws which involves the system of results which naturally deserves from any action or choice. For every action taking place, there must be an equal opposite reaction which makes administration of justice to be universal and absolute concept.Authority in command is another environment in which justice operates. The country formulates rules and regulations which governs the people. Whatever is not allowed in the rules is termed as injustice. The state than has the mandate to administer the rules to the people concerned through its authority to command. Justice should also operate under mutual agreement of everyone concerned. For this case, the formulation of laws in a country should not favor any group. The biasness leads to unequal administration of justice which in turn can lead to imbalance in the state.The issue of fairness should be considered where by each person should have equal right to the whole system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. The least advantaged should have fare equality of opportunity to social and economic ineq ualities. Right history plays a major role especially in ownership of property. Each individual should be entitled to having the right kind of history be it from just acquisition especially by working or unowned things or just transfer, from sale or free gift but not from unlawful means like grabbing and stealing.Retributivism is another issue concerning legal environment which justice operates. It involves dealing with justice violators. For instance when one is denies his/her right, that should be reported to authority for necessary steps to be taken. Wrong doing should be balanced/made good which is achieved through punishment administration. Justice administration should portray a high independency in investigation of truth. For instance, during judgments, the lawyers and magistrates should not be bias but drill on truth of the matter to know the reality of a phenomenon.Joint terrorism task force is another area where justice and security administration operates which is a small cell of highly trained, locally based argent for law enforcement in monitoring and investigating terrorists. Obscenity prosecution task force is another field of justice and security operation which deals with protection of American’s families and children through being involved in their nation’s obscenity laws.Assistance to victims of crime, prisoners and ex-offenders and also women from domestic violence is guaranteed by organization of faith based and community initiatives task force in US through provision of funding opportunities within the federal government. Violence in schools has been prevented by the department of justice and department of education through provision of guide to help schools and communities to educate each other on safeguarding their children. Drug abuse is another issue which has affected the communities’ development.This has been prevented through mobilization of citizens, use of policing strategies and to school children, through u se of after school recreation program. Voting is another area, where justice and security should be exercised. Every citizen is allowed by the law to freely choose the leader he/she requires without any influence. Justice also prohibits interference with access to reproductive health clinics or places of religions worship. Such should be accessible to every citizen. The changes in technology and mass communication has posed a positive effect administration of justice and security.Such includes establishment of the police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 A century ago before introduction by the police and criminal evidence, police used to interview suspects generally through transcription of questions and answers from memory. This led to recommendation of gradual introduction of audio recording of police interrogation in police stations which facilitated subordinate legislation to be drafted in such away to leave the rules regulating the police in the exercise of their investigative po wers, including interview recording with suspects.Advancement in technology has also led to public awareness of the laid down regulations through use of medias, law books and magazines. This enables the citizens to learn about the new rules and adhere to them appropriately. Technology and mass communication has led to revolution in telecommunications technology since 1978. If changed from making of calls on a wire and almost all transoceanic communications in radio communications to today’s technology which has reversed, as mot long-haul communications are on wire and local calls often travel by air.Other wholly new methods are also in place today like use of cell phones and e-mail which were not popular in 1970s. These new developments in technology play a vital role in restoring of security in different parts of world because information is acquired immediately after. Use of detection methods has contributed highly in maintenance of justice and security. This is acquired th rough use of well trained groups like intelligence groups who can be able to acquire a certain information before the disaster occurs.Change in technology and mass communication on the other hand can have negative effects in justice and security in that, for instance in times of world wide crisis, direct conveyance of first hand information can lead to incitation into other parts, hence lead to more damages. Technology also enables violators to use advanced destructive methods like bombings as for the case in US 1987 bombing Technological change also enabled citizens to know about the democracy. This automatically ruled out the traditional dictatorship leaderships and opened people’s mind to learn about their rights.The issues involved with individual rights versus the needs of the justice system should be balanced to maintain order and public safety. This has been achieved through regulating rules which are not bias to certain group of citizens. For instance, the right of sp eech should be available to every citizen. This enables everyone to express his/her self everywhere in the country. Every citizen is also entitled to a freedom of religion. A government should not decide on where and who people should worship but this should be based according to their faith.Assemble is another individual right whereby citizens should congregate anywhere and address their issues. The laws formulated by the government should abide to such rights for maintenance of order and security. Every citizen should be entitled to right of press in order to express his/her issues to others. The laws should not forbid this right because not unless one expresses himself, the shortcomings in the citizens cannot be known to the government. Voting is another issue whereby an individual should decide wisely on who to elect.In case of any malpractice, this can result to disagreement among the citizens hence lead to civil war in the country. Education opportunities should be available t o every citizen in the country. This should be achieved through provision of similar education system of the same quality to all students irrespective of poor or rich families. Health facility is another issue which should be available to every citizen. In order to balance this issue with the justice system, the government should have well stipulated laws allowing free acquisition of medical care to the aged and the children.Employment opportunity is another issue which should be available to every citizen. The provision of this aspect should be justified according to ones qualification. The government should ensure this through setting rules to guide the concerned bodies of employment distribution. Disabled citizens should be treated like any other individual. The government should ensure they are given the first priority in issues like employment opportunities. Equal protection should be available to every citizen.Such protection should be under the law which ensures security to c itizens either from assaults or injury by fellow citizens. This represents the right to live surveillance free and not to be identified as a suspect or to live suspiciously. The issue making decision about ones choice should be available to every citizen. For instance one should decide on marriage and reproduction which should be guarded by law and order. There should be provision of justice in issues of inheritance. This should occur after death of ones mate whereby his/her wealth should be inherited by the one who is left back.The issue of privacy should be observed as an individual right to every citizen. The law should ensure people’s security in their persons, honses and effects, against unreasonable searches. Another issue includes trial by jury. When one has been arrested, he should be proved guilty through trial. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused should enjoy the right to a speed and public trial and be notified. About the nature of cause of accusation; to be confronted with the witness against him to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor and look for help for his defense.Cruel or unusual punishment is another issue which should be justified by the law to ensure public safety and order. Once an individual has been arrested the issue of demanding excessive bail should not be practiced. Such an individual should be judged and if proved guilty, required punishment should be undertaken without imposing excessive fines or inflicting cruel and unusual punishments which in turn can lead to total harm to the victim. The issue of right to own and enjoy property has been an important aspect of human right.The law should justify that no individual should be deprived of either life, liberty or property without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public usage and yet there is no compensation from the government. Such property include land, among others. References: Washburne G,(1923). Imperial control of the Administration of justice in the thirteen American colonies,1984-1776. New York. Brussels P, (12/9/2002). Finding the Balance. Cittation from internet. http://www. crisisgroup. org/

Lady Macbeth Essay

Lady Macbeth Essay Lady Macbeth Essay Macbeth Conscience is the feeling that doing certain actions is wrong. It is something we have with us from birth, something that is also taught, developed and shaped through parents, especially during childhood. As children, we are taught what is right and what is wrong, by being given reasons and examples through very simple things. For instance, when a child takes another child’s chocolate, parents will teach their child that one must not take others possessions just because one wants to. But it’s worth mentioning that if a child’s needs haven’t been met, they will try to fulfill them at another child’s expense. Conscience is the little voice we hear within us when we do something wrong. It might start very high in the beginning and keep repeating the same conviction of what we did wrong. But, if we keep ignoring it, the voice will become low, and disappear. It is a sign that one’s conscience falls. It is ignoring that feeling of guilt when doing wrong actions. Some people’s conscience falls and rises in an extreme way; Macbeth by William Shakespeare is the best example. Macbeth is an ambitious man. He is a powerful general in the king’s army, a war hero. Macbeth meets three witches, who tell him that he is â€Å"Thane of Glamis.† They predict that he will be â€Å"Thane of Cawdor† and that he shall be â€Å"King of Scotland.† Macbeth’s first conscience fall is shown when he thinks of killing King Duncan in order to have the crown. Macbeth questions the prediction: â€Å"This supernatural soliciting cannot be ill, cannot be good. If ill, why hath it given me earnest of success commencing in a truth? I am Thane of Cawdor. If good, why do I yield to that suggestion whose horrid image doth unfix my hair and make my seated heart knock at my ribs against the use of nature?† (1.3.23).These words of the witches cannot be bad, and cannot be good either. If they are bad, why do they promise me success? They said the truth; I am â€Å"Thane of Cawdor.† If it is good, why do I have this horrible image of a dead king? This thinking makes my hair stand on end, and my heart beats so fast. It knocks on my ribs against its usual beat. Macbeth has a conscience. Macbeth becomes angry when King Duncan gives his son Malcolm the title of â€Å"Prince of Cumberland† since Macbeth wants the crown. He wants to be the king after the king’s death. Macbeth’s conscience unravels when he says: â€Å"The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step on which I must fall down or else o’erleap, for in my way it lies. S tars, hide your fires; let not light see my black and deep desires. The eye wink at the hand, yet let that be which the eye fears, when it is done, to see† (1.4.29). This is a confession of his desires. He wants to kill the King to satisfy his ambition, but Malcolm is in his way. He must fall down on that step or jump over it (Malcolm), for it is in his way. Till now, no plan to kill Duncan is contrived! It is still in Macbeth’s own mind. He sends his wife a letter about the witches in which Macbeth writes, â€Å"This have I thought good to deliver thee, my dearest partner of greatness, that thou might’st not lose the dues of rejoicing, by being ignorant of what greatness is promised thee. Lay it to thy heart, and Farewell.† (1.5.31). Between the lines of his letter we see how Macbeth offers his wife the title of a ‘Queen’. Therefore, she will help him to become a king. Lady Macbeth loves her husband. She wants him to be the king, to get the c rown which he deserves. In the same time, she knows he is too kind and he does not have the evil in him to kill the king. She is a mere woman and she knows he will not listen to her, but she will argue him. She has a lack of conscience when she calls on spirits â€Å"Come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, and fill me from the crown to the top-full of direst cruelty† (1.5.38–41). She begged the spirits to unsex her, undo her, and let all the symbols of womanhood disappear. She wants to be cruel to help her Lady Macbeth Essay Lady Macbeth Essay Also I get the picture that nothing will stop Lady Macbeth since she dreams of being Queen and she will achieve it. When Macbeth returns from battle she’s all over him, and telling him what she wants to do, telling us the audience that she’s in control over her Macbeth relationship. Once King Duncan arrives for his visit Lady Macbeth turns into the perfect hostess she’s polite courteous and completely different to how we saw her previous telling us she can change her personality easily. In these scenes Duncan calls her ‘fair and noble hostess’ where as the scene before Lady Macbeth has been plotting to kill Duncan. In Act 1 Scene 7 we get to see Lady Macbeth in control, determined and I wondered did the evil sprits really turn her? This particular scene I remember when I saw the video of Macbeth because it showed her bossy point demanding, evil al the things a women shouldn’t be. Lady Macbeth says in this scene to Macbeth ‘was the hope drunk’ exclaiming you made me a promise how dare you change your mine, ‘art thou afeard’ meaning you coward your afraid showing that she isn’t he’s weak. Also Lady Macbeth says something which leaves a question in my mind did she have a young child and it past a way or not? She says she’s given suck and she plucked her nipple from his boneless gums. Then she carries on persuading Macbeth until she gets what she wants mc to say he’ll kill King Duncan so she can get her dream. Lady Macbeth next appears in Act 2 Scene 3 when Macbeth enters with two ‘bloody daggers’ after killing King Duncan, suddenly for a second but I noticed it on the video she got sacred which was showed when she spoke in short sentences then suddenly Lady Macbeth is in charge again ‘give me the daggers’ imposing if your scared I’ll do it. Then in the video we see her bossing him around like he was a child. I found this scene particularly interesting to watch because it per traded each Lady Macbeth in to two ways in power and a scared and it was acted well so you could feel the tension there must have been between them at this moment. In Act 3 Scene 3 King Duncan’s body is discovered. We discover not only is Lady Macbeth evil and persuasive she’s a good liar and actress too. She shows as this with the surprise tone of him being found in ‘what our house?’ ‘Help me hence’ then follows by fainting, but I wonder was this on purpose or did she really faint which I’m not sure of and the video didn’t tell me that either. When we next see Lady Macbeth in Act 3 Scene 3 she has her dream she’s queen but she doesn’t seem happy. She seems distraught scared and anxious, but never less she covers for her husband when he has his visions of Banquo and uses her skills of a liar to cover the real reason of why Macbeth is saying Banquo is there but isn’t. The next scene we see Lady Macbeth in is the most dramatic and when I saw it on the video it looked weird, the tensions was and Lady Macbeth looked a mess. Lady Macbeth is sleepwalking she’s having a nightmare of the night king Duncan was killed. ‘Yes here’s a spot’ which is indicating to the blood on her hands from the daggers and she said this a few times more ‘the thane of fife had a wife. Where is she now?’ saying Macbeth killed the Macduffs, there gone. ‘Here the smell of blood still’ which shows in her eyes she will never be free of what she had done which in the video shows her scr ubbing and scrubbing her hands. Finally Lady Macbeth kills her self by jumping off her balcony showing how distraught she really was. In Act 5 Scene 9 Lady Macbeth is called a ‘fiend-like queen’ but is she really deep down I think Lady Macbeth was a kind gentle person but had a ambition and would do anything to make it happen a it had consciences because it cost her her life and made her unhappy for her last months alive and this was shown in the video by how she looked and the acts she put on. You can order a custom essay, term paper, research paper, thesis or dissertation on Lady Macbeth topics from our professional custom writing company which provides students with high-quality custom written papers at an affordable cost.

The Eyes That Cannot Lie What Lurks Behind Peoples Faces

The Eyes That Cannot Lie What Lurks Behind Peoples Faces Introducing a character into a story is not easy, even if it is actually leading the whole story. Mostly because the descriptions of the characters’ appearance tear the fabric of the story down, they are typically provided at the very start of the story and often look rather out-of-place. However, there would be no rule without an exception, which Eileen Chang’s short stories have proven successfully.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Eyes That Cannot Lie: What Lurks Behind People’s Faces specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More By showing the changes in her characters’ facial expressions throughout the entire novel, Chang manages to display a complex palette of emotions, which the leading characters experience, therefore, making it clear that a specific facial expression can have millions of shades of meaning, as well as that a shadow passing across one’s face can tell much more about th e given person than an entire tirade. One of the most striking things about the fleeting emotions of the characters and the way in which Chang manages to capture these emotions is in how many contexts a simple smile is used. It serves to express curiosity, tiredness, reluctance, etc.; in fact, one might be surprised how few times the smile is actually used to show that the character is genuinely happy. For example, Eldest Mistress Tai-chen smiles to invite Feng-hsiao for a walk – i.e., the smile is used as a way to express concern. After arriving later than expected, Ts’ao Ch’i-ch’iao smiles to show how sorry she is for the delay: â€Å"She smiled, showing her small teeth† (Chang). Yun-tse, who smiles in response to Ch’i-Ch’iao’s attempt to take her by the pigtail: â€Å"Yun-tse turned aside to protect her pigtail, saying with a smile: ‘I can’t even lose a few hairs without your permission?’† (Chang), which shows that the change in Yun-tse’s expression was used to display slight disobedience and a polite refusal. Ch’i-ch’iao then smiles in attempt to hide the emotion that overwhelm her at the sight of how protective of her Second Brother Chi-tse is, which is a striking contrast to the previously mentioned situation when Ch’i-ch’iao smiled. Thus, in addition, to the portrayal of a fleeting emotion, the description of Ch’i-ch’iao’s fleeting emotions shows how diverse and complex this character is, since different emotions trigger almost identical reactions in her.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In fact, the shift to a smile seems the most frequent emotion change in Eileen Chang’s novel; smile is mentioned as much as sixteen times (Chang). The given phenomenon might owe much to the specifics of the Chinese culture, where politeness is a top priority and, therefore, a variety of emotions may hide under a simple smile. It would be wrong, however, to consider the characters in the novel lifeless puppets who never display their real emotions. Although smile is, indeed, the most frequently mentioned emotion in the novel, the leading characters allow a negative emotion pass over their faces once in a while. For example, one of the characters actually frowns in the novel; much to the readers’ surprise, the frown is not a symbol of thoughtfulness or a situation when the character has to make an important decision. Unlike one might have expected, one of the characters in Chang’s novel expresses a discontent with a frown. To make it even more unexpected, the character who displays such an explicit dissatisfaction is a woman; to be more exact, it is Ch’ao-lu, known as Miss Tsao, or Little Miss Ch’ao: â€Å"Ch’ao-lu plucked a piece of raw fat a foot wid e off the hook and threw it down hard on the block, a warm odor rushing to her face, the smell of sticky dead fish†¦ She frowned† (Chang). It is also noteworthy that the frown does not come from the unpleasant smell; though Ch’ao is clearly disgusted by the odor of the fish, she clearly thinks of something other than the stench. As the readers are able to have a sight of what opens in front of Miss Ch’ao, however, all pieces fall into their places: â€Å"On the bed lay her husband, that lifeless body†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chang). With the help of a description of a frown passing across Ch’ao’s face, Chang managed to capture the fleeting emotion of regret. Though Ch’ao has seemingly adapted to her life with a man who is clearly not worth her, the feeling of dismay still gets the best of her once in a while, which the above-mentioned frown shows. Therefore, the given emotion stresses the strength and patience of the character, at the same time l etting the reader know that she still yearns for a better life.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Eyes That Cannot Lie: What Lurks Behind People’s Faces specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More While most of the above-mentioned ways to get across a complex emotion are rather subtle, some of the changes in the characters’ moods are displayed in a much more explicit manner, which helps understand the characters better. In contrast to a composed smile, which can have a million of shades of meaning, such a facial expression as sneering tells much about Little Shuang as a character. Making it clear that Little Shuang is more open than the rest of the characters, a sneer also points at such traits of her character as jealousy and scorn: â€Å"Little Shuang sneered. ‘How could she afford me! I used to wait on Old Mistress, but Second Master took medicine all day and had to be helped around all the time, and since they were short of hands, I was sent over there’† (Chang). Sneering helps to show how indignant Little Shuang is, and how unfair she believes she was treated. Thus, a mere act of sneering helps get an entire palette of emotions across, without breaking the character by making her indignation take the best of her. Finally, such emotion as anger deserves a proper mentioning. Though it does not appear in the novel very often, whenever it does, it becomes truly overwhelming. For example, as Yun-tse overhears the conversation between Old Mistress and Lang-hsien, she literally turns â€Å"white with anger† (Chang), which portrays her as a very impulsive person. While not all of the characters in Chang’s story are given a proper description of the way they look at the very start of the novel, their facial features are being discovered all the way through the novel, with every new feature being revealed to the reader with another twist of the story. A rather unusual; approach towards character description, this method helps the author keep the reader engaged and at the same time provides more room for the character development exercises. Even though the characters’ expressions do not change very often, each time when they do, it serves a specific purpose, therefore, making the characters more three-dimensional. With the help of her art of describing people’s emotions, Chang turns her stories into character study, therefore, making character arches more complex and the characters more compelling.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

More Answers to Questions About Apostrophes

More Answers to Questions About Apostrophes More Answers to Questions About Apostrophes More Answers to Questions About Apostrophes By Mark Nichol 1. In a reference to the amount of medication provided to an outpatient, I read â€Å"three days’ supply for acute or chronic noncancer pain; seven days for cancer pain or palliative care.† Should days be singular in this expression, or plural? I can’t decide whether it applies to three individual days, one at a time, or a single amount dispensed for three days. And in the second phrase, supply is implied after â€Å"seven days.† Should days after seven also have an apostrophe? â€Å"Three days’ supply† is equivalent to â€Å"a supply for three days,† and the supply essentially â€Å"belongs† to the unit of time, not to the segments of time that constitute that unit, so the construction should be in plural-possessive form, as shown. Also, yes, â€Å"seven days† is an elided form of â€Å"seven days’ supply, with the repetition of supply implied, but the apostrophe should not also be omitted. However, the elided form â€Å"seven days’† is still awkward, and I recommend using the full phrase: â€Å"seven days’ supply.† I also advise replacing the semicolon with a comma and or. 2. Are the apostrophes in this sentence correct?: â€Å"The US Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics’s 2006 Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses revealed that nearly 15 percent of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses happened in the retail trade sector.† Yes, they’re correct, but the use of two consecutive apostrophized proper names followed by the title of a survey is cumbersome. I recommend relaxing the sentence somewhat to â€Å"The US Department of Labor’s 2006 Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, conducted by the department’s Bureau of Labor Statistics, revealed that nearly 15 percent of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses happened in the retail trade sector.† There are still two apostrophes, but at a distance from each other, and one of the proper names is also removed from the long train of capitalized words, and the awkward form Statistics’s is avoided. 3. Please settle a disagreement. A friend told me that adding an apostrophe and an s to Joe and Jane in the following sentence is wrong, but I think it’s correct: â€Å"Many celebrities, instead of marrying other famous people, choose to settle down with average Joe’s and Jane’s.† With rare exceptions (such as in the saying â€Å"Mind your p’s and q’s†), an apostrophe should not be employed when creating a plural form, and pluralizing a proper noun is not one of those cases. Simply add an s to each name: â€Å"Many celebrities, instead of marrying other famous people, choose to settle down with average Joes and Janes.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Farther vs. FurtherCapitalization Rules for Names of Historical Periods and MovementsApostrophe with Plural Possessive Nouns

Managing Projects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managing Projects - Essay Example Another aspect of global or domestic management is ability of project manager to be able to monitor a project closely and control different dimensions such as, cost, quality and integration. These differences are sometime very different and sometimes very similar distinctions that can leave company leaders looking for contingency plans. Organization looking to get into globalization must take into consideration such differing factors as the language, expatriate, cultural, political, legal, economic, technological and many more that exist between the US and foreign countries. But only four of these items will be discussed in regards to globalization and the problems companies facing when venturing into foreign countries. The most common barrier organizations encounter going into foreign countries is language barriers. There are unspoken signals and gestures that are non verbal form of communication that that sometimes may be disregarded. Non verbal forms of communication include gestures, body language and semiotics, which refer to the underlying meaning of signs. Companies also encounter the issue of translation of document in English to various languages. For instance, the company I work for have subsidiaries in China, Japan, Taiwan and other parts of the world. On several occasion we have had problems with translations of our documents into various languages. ... ntages to the project team but more careful attention need to be given to development work, more careful attention needs to be given to the team of what is expected of them. Expatriates face the difficult of local team members not wanting to share their knowledge or lend a helping hand to an outsider. Using expatriates can be costly because the organization would have to provide housing and transportation and other amenities for the duration of the project. Cultural differences can be sub-group into attitudes, beliefs and values. Employee attitudes differ from country to country and this affects the way consumers in foreign countries react to certain scenarios. For instance, people in some foreign countries beliefs that a man should be the head of a business unit but in the US we belief in placing the most qualified person in the position. In terms of attitude, some cultures do not allow lower level employees to speak during a business because the respect is supposed to go to the head of the department. Lower level employees are required to brief their boss on every aspect of the business before the meet and during the meeting they are not allowed to comment or contradict. To illustrate how cultural differences can affect an international country I will use the example of the company I for, we were so insensitive to the religious beliefs of our Muslim countries who we conduct business with that we use a bi-product made from pig intestin e and at the end the drug product was reject by the Health Authorities of those countries. We had to find a substitute for the bi-product in order to keep the drug on the market. Other area of importance for companies to consider when entering into foreign markets is politics, which reflects the importance of the government and the legal

Health Insurance - Obama Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Insurance - Obama Care - Essay Example The law was meant to eliminate the current pre-existing health conditions in the state, stop the insurance companies from getting rid of the customers when they fall sick, protect any form of gender discrimination that exists in the healthcare industry and expand on the existing preventive services and health benefits available (Noonan). Furthermore, the law stipulates that big organizations insure all their employees, create a subsidised insurance in order to lower the cost of insurance and consequently reduce the cost of healthcare spending and the discrepancy. As much as the idea was taken well by many, this was not the case with everyone. This is especially so with the religious community, which believed that the law raised many controversies in terms of the morals and ethics of the religious groups. This was in relation to the laws of the birth control mandate. The ObamaCare plan requires that all for-profit employer’s health plan to provide insurance for up to twenty contraception methods. Among the twenty contraception methods, five of them in the eyes of the religious community was viewed as a form of abortion or sterilization. The basis the religious leaders used in their defence was the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, which was passed in 1993 (Tate, 106). The statute merely stipulated that if the government at any point interferes in any way with the free exercise of religion, it must narrowly alter its regulations to serve a persuasive concern and inflict the least â€Å"oppressive† option. Most religions are against the idea of the use of contraceptives, especially in an instance when the mod e of contraception seems to be a form of taking away life. This, therefore, necessitated the need for the law to be adjusted such that it suits the needs of everyone in the community.   Consequently, the Health and Human Services was forced to make an exemption for churches from the mandate, which implied that religious non-profits were allowed to apply for quasi-exemption from the rule.

Analysis of the story Revelation by Flannery O'Connor where you argue Essay

Analysis of the story Revelation by Flannery O'Connor where you argue a theme - Essay Example This conversation, which is in the form of a rude question, reproduces Mrs. Turpins self-absorbed nature. It is expected of a Christian to be polite and patient when talking to other people regardless of their race, age, and tribe. The character that Mrs. Turpin reveals is that of rudeness and racism. Rather than Mrs. Turpin having a concern for the girls fitness, she is absorbed on how the girls whereabouts and attitude reveal about her. In another angle, it also infers that Mrs. Turpin distinguishes Mary Graces union and closeness to God in that instant they converse (OConnor 15). This informs a reader of the story that indeed Mrs. Turpin deserves a good revelation which she is given, though it is unusual and not to her surprise she expected. These words motivate Mrs. Turpins need for a revelation at the conclusion of the story, when she realizes herself, Claud, and those of the same socioeconomic rank bringing up the rearmost of the march to Heaven. Although they are saved, they need follow persons whom Mrs. Turpin has well-thought-out to be beneath her. The young girl’s eyes are important as signs of her ruling of Mrs. Turpin and of her capability to communicate a holy message from God. The fat young girl as described in the story has violent eyes that resemble "alternately to smoulder and to blaze." When Grace begins to be impatient with her own mother and with the rude Mrs. Turpin, she bangs her book and stares fiercely at Mrs. Turpin. The writer puts it that the girl’s eyes "seemed peculiar light, an unnatural light similar night road signs give." This contrast to road signs is the foretelling that there is a serious event that will take place. The sentence also contrasts Grace’s eyes with the girls potential to send a crucial message and that guides a revelation to Mrs. Turpin. As Mrs. Turpin is seated and thinking about the hopelessness of helping patients, for example, whom she calls â€Å"the white-trash woman,† Mary Graces eyes

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 Essay

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 - Essay Example In Renny Harlin’s film Die Hard 2 (1990), masculinity has both physical and mental power over femininity. According to Carroll (2003, p.54) John McLane, the Die Hard series’ principal character, is a prime example of masculine dominance, and ‘studies in the film field pay specific attention to the Herculean physical performances and spectacular body appearances of starring characters’. Although heroes play important roles in many successful films, most of these female characters are known only in relation to the films’ male heroes, which is partly due to male domination in society. This paper will analyze the representation of masculinity in Die Hard 2, and incorporate arguments from work by Mulvey (1975), Neale (1983) and Tasker (2004). Die Hard 2 tells the story of New York police officer, John McLane, played by Bruce Willis. The film’s opening scene takes place on Christmas Eve, when McLane visits his wife in Los Angeles (Gates 2006, p.35). McLane has what Rzepka and Horsley term ‘unresolved issues’ (2010, p.89); consequently, he is not in good terms with his wife. When McLane arrives in Los Angeles, he finds his wife at an office Christmas party, and supposed political terrorists then invade the building where the party is taking place. The film portrays McLane’s heroic attempts to save his wife from these terrorists. In Die Hard 2, as in many action films, masculine characters possess virile physical prowess and display social dominance. Social dominance, in this case, is a term used to refer to the position that the said characters hold in their spheres of influence as the main characters. This can be seen as in the case of John McLane, who is a police officer and his role in society qualifies to be dominant. Another important aspect of masculine heroes in action films is their excessive aggression. Prior studies of Hollywood’s films that primarily focus their attention on male characters characterize Die Hard 2 as a male-driven action film, with the ‘presentation of the lead hero as a macho man’ (Milestone and Meyer 2012, p. 50). This is due to McLane’s spectacular ability to wrestle his enemies, which is often a trait of the hero in male-driven films. This is due to the nature masochism in male characters in action films, where the characters are meant to be heroes with all the skill at making the evil characters come down to their knees. Carroll comments that the ‘physical masculinity of an action hero gives a preferential tone for the action narrative’, which refers to the progression of the masculine characters in film (2003, p.79). In Le Guin, (Goodwill 2009, p.13) it is found that audiences tend to accept male characters’ heroism in films, whereas they tend to find female heroism less acceptable. This is due to the social and cultural notion that males are physically and mentally stronger than females, thus making them heroes at the expense of female characters. Rzepka and Horsley define masculinity in film as ‘an opinion that a film-maker intends to deliver that involves physical prowess, sexual virility and aggression’ (2010, p. 61). Gates argues that Die Hard 2 focuses on physicality: the way that McLane is displayed as a hero ‘forms a vital ingredient of a film’s visual effects’ (2006, p. 58). Similarly, Bould states that literature on action heroes

Camayd freixas interpreting ICE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Camayd freixas interpreting ICE - Assignment Example Although the office of the clerk at the U.S. District Court had already contracted interpreters almost one month ago, they could not talk about it, since they were not at liberty to do so with the fear of compromising the impending raid. This investigation was reportedly led by ICE from the executive branch with the help of U.S. District Court from the judicial branch. The court had moved to a remote location for two weeks which formed part of their continuity of operation exercise just in case there was no disruption from any emergency such as flood or tornado. In the process of interpretations during the first day, we had sluggish beginning due to the malfunctioning of the barcode booking system of the Immigration and Customs Enforcement. This meant that we had to sort out the documents manually and the office of the U.S. Attorney assisted us in processing the documents. Because of this, few, less than a third, detainees could be arraigned on Tuesday. We made rotations in shift due to the many numbers of interpreters available that day. Although the court adjourned after 4pm, there was an overnight prosecution work that planned on a 7am to midnight court during the next day. I found out more facts about the Agriprocessors such as the factual statistics of arrest and number of employees. However, the more I found out, I felt blind sighted in an assignment that I never needed any part. Although I mastered the whole rationale of the secrecy involved, I understood clearly that the interpreter of the contract is the one with the right to decline a job that have conflicts with his intuitional morals. I had however been deprived of this opportunity. I was already in anyway and at some point I considered withdrawing seriously from the assignment as a federally certified interpreter for the first time in 23 years due to conflict of interest. Nevertheless, I had both the contractual and ethical obligation to have a withdrawal in case of conflict

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 Essay

The Representation of Masculinity in Die Hard 2 - Essay Example In Renny Harlin’s film Die Hard 2 (1990), masculinity has both physical and mental power over femininity. According to Carroll (2003, p.54) John McLane, the Die Hard series’ principal character, is a prime example of masculine dominance, and ‘studies in the film field pay specific attention to the Herculean physical performances and spectacular body appearances of starring characters’. Although heroes play important roles in many successful films, most of these female characters are known only in relation to the films’ male heroes, which is partly due to male domination in society. This paper will analyze the representation of masculinity in Die Hard 2, and incorporate arguments from work by Mulvey (1975), Neale (1983) and Tasker (2004). Die Hard 2 tells the story of New York police officer, John McLane, played by Bruce Willis. The film’s opening scene takes place on Christmas Eve, when McLane visits his wife in Los Angeles (Gates 2006, p.35). McLane has what Rzepka and Horsley term ‘unresolved issues’ (2010, p.89); consequently, he is not in good terms with his wife. When McLane arrives in Los Angeles, he finds his wife at an office Christmas party, and supposed political terrorists then invade the building where the party is taking place. The film portrays McLane’s heroic attempts to save his wife from these terrorists. In Die Hard 2, as in many action films, masculine characters possess virile physical prowess and display social dominance. Social dominance, in this case, is a term used to refer to the position that the said characters hold in their spheres of influence as the main characters. This can be seen as in the case of John McLane, who is a police officer and his role in society qualifies to be dominant. Another important aspect of masculine heroes in action films is their excessive aggression. Prior studies of Hollywood’s films that primarily focus their attention on male characters characterize Die Hard 2 as a male-driven action film, with the ‘presentation of the lead hero as a macho man’ (Milestone and Meyer 2012, p. 50). This is due to McLane’s spectacular ability to wrestle his enemies, which is often a trait of the hero in male-driven films. This is due to the nature masochism in male characters in action films, where the characters are meant to be heroes with all the skill at making the evil characters come down to their knees. Carroll comments that the ‘physical masculinity of an action hero gives a preferential tone for the action narrative’, which refers to the progression of the masculine characters in film (2003, p.79). In Le Guin, (Goodwill 2009, p.13) it is found that audiences tend to accept male characters’ heroism in films, whereas they tend to find female heroism less acceptable. This is due to the social and cultural notion that males are physically and mentally stronger than females, thus making them heroes at the expense of female characters. Rzepka and Horsley define masculinity in film as ‘an opinion that a film-maker intends to deliver that involves physical prowess, sexual virility and aggression’ (2010, p. 61). Gates argues that Die Hard 2 focuses on physicality: the way that McLane is displayed as a hero ‘forms a vital ingredient of a film’s visual effects’ (2006, p. 58). Similarly, Bould states that literature on action heroes

Popular Press Vs. Research in relationship advice Essay

Popular Press Vs. Research in relationship advice - Essay Example Research is a bottomless pit that continues to grow day in day out. Several studies have brought forth certain truths about relationships, these have enhanced the way counsellors’ approach various aspects of relationships as well as helping individuals cope with difficult relationships. In order to elucidate the precise meaning of certain behaviour in a family or workplace setup research based conclusions have predicted adoption of certain measures in order to combat the situations. Research should be respected and embraced, because the awareness and beliefs adopted about relationship behaviour of people propagated through the media becomes the truth. The public is very thirsty for information on relationships. The media has continues to fill this gap by providing this coveted information. A careful evaluation of the information propagated by the media indicates some reasonable disparity with the research based findings. The observable trends are that there is a tendency by th e popular press to incline their attention on romance with very little focus on other type of relationships. This is because romance has been a topic that captures the attention of many hence translating to more sales. Therefore, the strategy is to make more money without a sincere concern of the impact the information given generates to the masses. Stereotyping has been a common misconception the media platforms have propagated. Holmes and Johnson (p 2) points out that the media has created the misconception to the public that continues to brand men as autonomous and easy to back off intimate relationships while women as emotional and anxious. Research indicates that despite the presence of gender differences are superseded by other aspects of an individual such as their personality, attitude, emotional intelligence, and beliefs among others. Therefore, the common notion propagated of the character and behaviours cannot substantively explain relationships. However, stereotypes may have their place but they should never be used to generalize relationships. The featuring of controversial icons has raised eyebrows on how relationships should be handled. Some of the prominent people have been implicated with various relationship-based evils such as domestic violence among other heinous acts. These individuals become even more famous and get to have even bigger coverage. To the minds of the people especially young people who are learning from the environment may be tempted to embrace what their favourite â€Å"star† is doing. Such information becomes are references to some individuals on what is done, information that they try to connect with what they know and conclude on what should be done on such situations. Such behaviours strengthen stereotypes, makes individuals to conclude on what is culturally acceptable, and that which is unacceptable. The media has created a mental picture that certain aspects of relationships are normal while research indicates otherwise. Divorce has been on the increase with couples calling for separation even days after marriage. Research has suggested several ways of avoiding divorce, mechanisms that have been highly beneficial to many relationships. Research findings have shown those individuals who divorce live depressed lives with little satisfaction and more health problems compared to their married counterparts (Amato and Previti 607). In contrary, the media has

Coke vs PepsiPepsi and Coke’s Uncivil Wars Essay Example for Free

Coke vs PepsiPepsi and Coke’s Uncivil Wars Essay Chapter 9 in Competition Demystified: Uncivil Cola Wars: Coke and Pepsi Confront the Prisoner’s Dilemma What are the sources of competitive advantages in the soda industry? First we should look at industry structure. The cola companies buy raw materials of sugar, sweeteners and flavorings from many suppliers then they turn the commodities into a branded product which consists of syrup/concentrated combined with water and bottles. The companies are joined at the hip with their bottlers/distributors who then sell to many retail outlets. Selling bulky and heavy beverages lends itself to regional economies of scale advantages. The soda companies cannot operate successfully unless their bottlers and distributors are profitable and content whether company-owned or franchised. The existence of barriers to entry indicates that the incumbents enjoy competitive advantages that potential entrants cannot match. In the soft drink world, the sources of these advantages are easy to identify. First, on the demand side, there is the kind of customer loyalty that network executives, beer brewers and car manufacturers only dream about. People who drink sodas drink them frequently (habit formation), and they relish a constancy of experience that keeps them ordering the same brand, no matter the circumstances. Both Coke and Pepsi exhibit the presence of barriers to entry and competitive advantage—stable *ROE can be influenced by whether bottlers’ assets are off or on the balance sheet Second, there are large economies of scale in the soda business both at the concentrate maker and bottler levels. Developing new products and advertising existing ones are fixed costs, unrelated to the number of cases sold. Equally important, the distribution of soda to the consumer benefits from regional scale economies. The more customers there are in a given region, the more economical the distribution. A bottler of Coke, selling the product to 40% to 50% of the soda drinkers in the market area, is going to have lower costs than someone peddling Dr. Pepper to 5% to 56% of the drinkers. During the â€Å"statesmen† era of Pepsi and Coke, what actions did each of the companies take? Why did they help raise profitability? Note the stability of market share and ROE. ROE dipped in 1980 and 1982 as Pepsi and Coke waged a price war. Yet, market shares did not change as a result of the price war—both companies were worse off. Pepsi gained market share in the late 1970s versus Coke. Coke was slow and clumsy to respond. Price wars between two elephants in an industry with barriers to entry tend to flatten a lot of grass and make customers happy. They hardly ever result in a dead elephant. Still, there are better and worse ways of initiating a price contest. Coke chose the worst. Coke chose to lower concentrate prices on those regions where its share of the cola market was high (80%) and Pepsi’s low (20 percent). This tactic ensured that for every dollar of revenue Pepsi gave up, Coke would surrender four dollars. Coke luckily developed New Coke which allowed it to attack Pepsi in its dominant markets in a precise way—minimizing damage to Coke’s profits–and force a truce in the price wars. They made visible moves to signal the other side that they intended to cooperate. Coca-Cola initiated the new era with a major corporate reorganization. After buying up many of the bottlers and reorganizing the bottler network, it spun off 51% of the company owned bottlers to shareholders in a new entity, Coca-Cola Enterprises, and it loaded up on debt for this corporation. With so much debt to service, Coca-Cola Enterprises had to concentrate on the tangible requirements of cash flow rather than the chimera of gaining great hunks of market share from Pepsi. PepsiCo responded by dropping the Pepsi Challenge, toning down its aggressive advertising and thus signaling that it accepted the truce. Profit margins improved. Operating profit margins went from 10% to 20% for Coca-Cola. Pepsi gain was less dramatic but also substantial. Both companies focused on ROE rather than market share and sales growth. The urge to grow, to hammer competitors and drive them out of business, or at least reduce their market share by a meaningful amount, had been a continual source of poor performance for companies that do have competitive advantages and a franchise, but are not content with it.

Impact of Private Military Companies on Security

Impact of Private Military Companies on Security What impact do Private Military Companies have on International Security? 1. Introduction 1.1. Scenes from Fallujah Towards the end of March 2004, the world bore witness to by now familiar scenes of blood-letting from Iraq. Pictures captured on this occasion by an Associate Press journalist (Mascolo, 2006) showed Iraqis celebrating the killing of two foreigners. Emaciated and hardly recognisable, their bodies hung over the bridge they had just a moment ago attempted to cross. Some 30 miles west of Baghdad, the notoriously restless town of Fallujah formed the backdrop to the ambush where, it emerged from later reports, two of those killed as well as the surviving men were all American nationals who had been tasked with escorting the transportation of foodstuff. When they fell into the trap, all four had been sitting in their car. Following gunfire they incurred the wrath of insurgents keen to seek revenge on whom they saw as unwelcome occupiers by torching their vehicle (Scahill, 2006). Two of them managed to escape in time but the other two, it seems, could not retreat, either because they were al ready heavily injured or were already dead. Even to this day the precise circumstances of what really had happened remain unclear, and it will probably remain so. What is clear, however, is that none of them – either the dead or the survivors – were bona fide soldiers operating in uniform. Belonging neither to the United States Army nor to any other army of the â€Å"coalition of the willing† stationed in Iraq, all four were, to all legal intents and purposes, â€Å"civilians†, who had, at least as it appeared initially, the gross misfortune of being at the wrong place at the wrong time. But on closer inspection one could discern that all four of them were employees of Blackwater, a private security company headquartered in Moyock, North Carolina (www.blackwaterusa.com). Founded only eleven years earlier to the incident, Blackwater symbolizes the growth of a new and booming sector of the military economy, which entrusts private companies with tasks that had previously been preserved for the state. Referring to the process of deregulation, which had made this possible, the founder of Blackwater, Erik Prince, explaine d by way of comparison that, â€Å"we are trying to do for national security what Fed Ex did for the postal service. Fed Ex†, he went on to say in an interview with the Weekly Standard, â€Å"did many of the same services the postal service did, better, cheaper, smarter, and faster by innovating [which] the private sector can do much more effectively† (quoted in Hemingway, 2006). What his company was doing, he claimed, was nothing dissimilar and, in fact, in the national interest too, since his employees would save the American ratepayers a substantial amount of tax. 1.2. The challenge of Private Military Companies For those who lived through the twentieth-century, where it was a given that state-instituted regular standing armies which recruited from its own people were entrusted with the nation’s security, this arrangement would strike an inconceivable note. Not even in the heyday of unbridled Victorian laissez-faire liberalism did the state feel the need to call upon publically-traded companies to look after its own geopolitical interests. Yet the self-confidence, expressed by Prince, in the capability of his private firm to provide a better service than the state cannot be pushed aside as mere marketing rhetoric. In 2003, for example, Blackwater, DynCorp and other private military companies (hereafter PMCs) turned over a more than impressive collective profit of 100 million dollars (Mlinarcik, 2006). If the prognosis of forecasters is any guide, this sum is set to double by 2010, making the military market a lucrative one and pointing to further deregulation. Limited to Iraq alone, w here the incident in Fallujah took place, there were at the last count some 60 private security firms operating in the country, with a total number of 20,000 personnel, or â€Å"contractors†, on their books. So ubiquitous have PMCs become that their size now even dwarf that of the British army, the second largest state-sanctioned contingent in the area. More importantly, PMCs have not limited their remit to support or mere logistics, situated far away from the field of combat, but ominously they now increasingly provide armed escorts, security in and around buildings and, if need be, take on roles which would normally be associated with soldiers in a regular army on fields of combat. Such a reliance on contractors moreover is set to escalate as states realise that outsourcing military responsibilities to these private firms, who typically hire experienced veterans of conflict, can be more effective as well as economical. Not least because of these attractions the United States government has taken out over 600 contracts in Iraq alone (Singer, 2003, 17). Such acts of outsourcing, it should be remembered, are not in themselves particularly unusual. Many states have had little qualms about taking on new spheres of responsibility while relinquishing others. Examples such as the postal service, transport and energy are recent industries that spring immediately to mind, and in which there have been notable, if at times controversial, successes. But the sanctioned use of force – the maintenance of security – has been an area that the state has traditionally monopolised. No modern political ideology, either left or right, has questioned the centrality of the state as unrivalled arbiters of peace, and herein lies the reason why the emergence of PMCs strikes the alarming cord it does. 1.3. State, security and PMCs Traditionally, it has only been the state which could, according to the classic definition provided by Max Weber, legitimise the use of power. Through its organs – in the shape of the police and army – the state enjoyed the exclusive right to control, suppress, exert and maintain security within and without (Elias 1997). Only if the state can show off it supreme and legitimate control within its territorial borders, Weber went as far as to say, could the state be worthy of its name (Weber, 120). External interference in the monopoly of the use of force, such as civil wars and organised criminal activity, would cast doubt on the viability of the state as enforcers of security. Crucially, Weber presupposed that â€Å"the exercise of violence can be ascribed to other groups and individuals only to the extent that the state itself permits it† (Weber, 131), a statement which further underscores the tight relationship between the state and its own security. By taking o ver this monopoly on security, then, the concern is that PMCs are mounting a challenge to the centrality of the state as sole and supreme arbiters of power. The very modus operandi, in other words,of the state appears to be threatened. For all of Weber’s brilliance as a thinker, such a classic definition could only have emerged during nineteenth century Europe, for it was the nation-state which reigned supreme at the time; but ever since then advances in modern technology and the movement of both people and information have conspired to limit how much authority states are allowed to wield. Responding to situations when individual states cannot act separately to solve security issues that are international or transnational, Krasner has pointed to moves by the United Nations to intervene in cases of humanitarianism, which incidentally not only emboldens the power of collective states to exercise force in the sphere of international relations, but also serves to limit the powers of states which fall foul of certain international laws. As President Roosevelt put it as far back as 1904: ‘Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may †¦ ult imately requite intervention by some civilized nations’ (Krasner 1999, 181). While alarming, PMCs should therefore not be considered as complete replacements of the state. Compared to standing armies, which PMCs could not realistically or wholly replace, PMCs would only be entrusted on occasions where there is a demand for its services. They would be delegated select tasks which the state apparatus feels would be better performed when outsourced. Importantly, these firms merely temporarily receive a limited mandate to use violence which would otherwise revert back to the state once contract ends. Such an arrangement, however, can be a potential danger to security, and this is where the fault lines of debate lie. As the last sentences imply, private firms come to the business of war not to serve the national interest but the financial interest. Despite the example of certain companies working only for the US Army, and thus for the national interest, there is nothing that would stop them from serving other states if they thought they could maximize their own pr ofit. To that extent, it is almost exclusively the market that drives them. Such a difference worries some observers because, if PMCs were to choose to work for a rival country, for instance China, they would take knowledge and expertise that had previously resided with the United States for example. Since it is the market that guides them, it is far from out of the question that this will not happen. If not now then it could occur in the future. The question for some is not if – but when. More ominously, by contrast to standing armies, which receive regular supplies of weapons and training by the state, PMCs have as a rule their own cache of weapons that the state would not provide. Such a state of affairs have lead to legitimate concerns that they might fall into the wrong hands when companies are made bankrupt or when the PMCs themselves, having firmly established themselves as multi-national corporations with a global reach and ample resources, should chose to eat the hand that fed them. From a more operational point of view, the security dangers would be manifest on the ground. Employees of PMCs are not strictly-speaking soldiers who are organised hierarchically but are civilians who are only accountable for their actions through the contracts they have made with their clients. Communication problems between two culturally different entities on the field of combat could, it is feared, end up compromising security. Such worrying tendencies, described memorably by K ofi Annan as the â€Å"privatization of security†, if true, go to the heart of what the state is all about: its control over security (Holmqvist, 2005, 8). 2. Literature review 2.1. Popular representations of PMCs Private military companies today are keen to highlight the supportive and positive impact they have on international security. That they should do so is no surprise as corporations want to impress potential clients. To state that they help undermine security would be tantamount to business suicide. Such a reason explains why they are often vigorous in their denial of any criticism that they are in any way â€Å"mercenaries†. Even though firms such as the London-based Armor Group, have names to suggest otherwise, they do stress nonetheless they are in the business of delivering aid rather than unleashing threats to international security. Like most PMCs, the Armor Group is a listed company, headquartered in London, and trade shares in the city’s Stock Exchange as a bona fide business venture. More concretely, as one correspondent reported, it distributed between 2003 and 2007 a staggering â€Å"31,100 vehicles, 451,000 weapons and 410 million rounds of ammunition to the new Iraqi security forces, and items as varied as computers, baby incubators, school desks and mattresses for every Iraqi government ministry† (The Washington Post, 2007). As a publicly traded company, fully licensed by the Iraqi Interior Ministry, Armor Group even took casualties, partly because it decided to refrain from using particularly powerful weaponry for fear of collateral damage. Why? â€Å"[It] did not want to be perceived as a mercenary force† (The Washington Post, 2007). Such pains to present themselves as supporters of states in their bid to maintain security are often dismissed by commentators, fascinated in the phenomenon of PMCs, in favour of a narrative that spins secret plots and conspiracy theories that do little to contribute to the understanding of these companies as new and influential agents of international peace and security. In a recently published book, Blackwater: The Rise of the Worlds Most Powerful Mercenary Army, journalist Jeremy Scahill, for example, entirely commits his analysis to doing just this. Pointing to PMCs as mere mercenaries, he goes as far as to state they would be the tool of choice for an adventurous American President’s covert power schemes. Drawing from otherwise correct premises about the end of the Cold War and the increased need for military know-how, Scahill however slowly strays from this promising start by underestimating the historical developments and the complicated changes which have occurred in t he field of military services contracting. Ultimately, he ends up even ignoring the basic normative definition of â€Å"mercenary person† provided by Article 47 of the 1997 First Additional Protocol (FAP) to the Geneva Conventions. He also washes over numerous lawsuits initiated against Blackwater and other PMCs with reference to alleged safety violations leading to the death of several contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan. Enlisting the agenda-ridden and highly selective accounts of unnamed US soldiers who were â€Å"envious†, he pours scorn on the attitude of overpaid â€Å"private soldiers [who] whiz by in better vehicles, with better armor, better weapons, wearing the corporate logo instead of the American flag†(The Nation, 28 May 2007). In a similar vein, Publishers Weekly chose to portray private military contractors as â€Å"heir[s] to a long and honourable tradition of contract soldier[s],† providing â€Å"relatively low-cost alternatives in high- budget environments† (Publishers Weekly Editorial Reviews, 10 April 2007). Such portrayals of PMCs suggest contractors for these companies have an easy job. But this is far from the case. First, PMCs employees normally work in small teams which can neither count on close air support nor rely on artillery or mortar fire if backup were needed. The US government does not provide their ammunition, weapons systems or daily meals. Whatever they have or need to have (from their subsistence to the accomplishment of their mission) is privately shipped from the parent-country. Should anything happen, as it did in Fallujah, these personnel are on their own, and the odds during either a conventional fire fight or an ambush are far less in their favour. Second, one is not born a military contractor. Most of them have extensive military experience and/or law enforcement backgrounds, with years of training in special tactics and difficult environments. They worked hard to become the very marketable, final commodity that they represent today. It is not a â€Å"betrayal,â €  on their part, to honour their contract with the Armed Forces and then seek a more lucrative source of income. In addition, once these professionals have left their position (be it within the Armed Forces, a police department or other Federal or local government agency) all previous entitlements as far as life insurance (today in excess of $400,000), health benefits, family members coverage and combat zone tax exemption cease to exist. Although a one year-tour in the Middle East with Blackwater would earn a person with an experienced background between $80,000 and $110,000, this would not necessarily be an overriding incentive to go. Third, PMCs are a competitive work environment: good pay calls for knowledgeable, reliable individuals. The levels of professionalism are in general high, while open calls for concerted monitoring and a better regulatory system have further contributed to an effective screening of those applying for a position with all major military services prov iders (Burns, 2007). 2.2. Scholarly opinions of PMCs Such an excursion must undermine the promiscuous notion that PMCs are die-hards whose sole intention is to con their way into subverting international security. More serious students of international security by contrast have been more cautious and keen to acknowledge the complexity that is involved in assessing the nature of PMCs. From a strictly realist point of view, which assumes the principle of states as rational unitary actors, with their own security at their forefront of their hierarchy of needs, the delegation of power to contractors smacks of surrendering sovereignty per se, and in this sense political scientists of this school of thought would conclude that PMCs have a negative impact on international security. Most obviously this standpoint manifests itself in examples where weak states, â€Å"convulsed by internal violence†, have failed to â€Å"deliver positive political goods to their population† (Rotberg, 2003, 1), which is the reason why they may have to resort to the services of PMCs. Conventionally-speaking this would mean PMCs would compromise security. Yet the privatisation of defence and security, it has been argued, can actually play a positive role in countries which lack structures and technical expertise to achieve stability (Arnold, 1990, 170). By contrast to weak states’ traditional reliance on unpredictable warlords, it is pointed out, foreign military firms can, in fact, provide affordable and effective services to states on a low budget. Without the risk of further disrupting political and social equilibrium, PMCs would act as level-headed participants in conflict swayed less by emotional arguments than by the exclusive need to restore stability. Such an optimistic appraisal of PMCs is adopted by the foremost specialist on them, Peter Singer, who believes that weak states would benefit from their relationship with military companies. Responding to criticism that PMCs would be a drain on the host state’s resources, Singer claims that PMCs in this day and age do not need to secure a diamond mine or an oil fiel d to underwrite their operations – as mercenaries of old had perhaps done. In most instances, a more lucrative market is provided anyway by international emergencies where coalitions of states, large NGOs or international institutions would be willing to pay handsome rewards for their services (Singer, 2002, 190). Such a sentiment is echoed by Jonas Hagmann and Moncef Kartas who remark that â€Å"the shift from government to governance, the trend away from state-centric provision for public services such as security and towards network- and private sector-centric provision, allows international organisations to play a role in the regulation of security governance (Hagmann Kartas, 2007, 285-6). In this framework the calculated risk stemming from entrusting law enforcement activities to private contractors can have a positive outcome. International security is thus upheld. On the opposite front, scholars such as William Reno (2002) have argued that the increasing resort to military contractors would bring about two different but equally negative consequences. First, private firms run the risk of being seen as enforcers of a new order represented by a resurgence of neo-colonialism. That the attackers in Fallujah, described at the beginning of this investigation, did not discriminate between contractors and regular soldiers is perhaps a case in point. Second, the presence and operation of private security firms, which are given the monopoly to exercise violence, would only add to the corruption of local ruling elites. Such a danger would of course apply more to lowly developed countries than highly developed ones, but, it is pointed out, regimes would be keen to utilise foreign professionals in the furtherance of their own agendas, where PMCs would contribute to the worsening of domestic political stability and territorial integrity (Reno, 2002, 70). Such a gloomy assessment is also advanced by Paul Verkuil who warns that â€Å"reliance on the private military industry and the privatisation of public functions has left governments less able to govern effectively. When decisions that should have been taken by government officials are delegated (wholly or in part) to private contractors without appropriate oversight, the public interest is jeopardised† (Verkuil, 2007, 23). More and more government, Verkuil further observes, seem to favour recourse to outsiders, cashing in their own sovereignty as pawns in order to secure a solution to their more personal welfare. Similarly, Thomas Jà ¤ger and Gerhard Kà ¼mmel support the pessimistic view that sees the weakening of the state, especially in lowly developed countries. â€Å"The price for providing security for a beleaguered and cash-strapped government is exorbitant†, they announce, as those services cost â€Å"the contractual sum but also considerable parts of the st ate’s sovereignty† (Jà ¤ger and Kà ¼mmel, 2007, 120). Such pessimism has also been reflected in the work of Ronen Palan who bewails the commercialization of sovereignty. Pointing his finger at the expanding phenomenon of the offshore economy, which provides tax havens and financial facilities to large corporations and affluent individuals, Palan believes that a whole array of illegitimate activities are being staged today in those countries willing to give up on their security (Palan, 2003, 59). 2.3. Future development of PMCs More ominously, scholars such as Thomson see dangerous portents for the future. Even though it would be possible to see the state delegating power, he accepts, in practice â€Å"increasing numbers of African rulers are opting today for alternatives to bureaucratic, territorially bounded institutional arrangements† (Thomson, 1995, 217-218), and are finding in private contractors a critical tool in the furtherance of such design. In support of this thesis, William Reno highlights the â€Å"fragmented sovereignty of Liberian and Sierra Leonean ‘warlord’ political units, and the associated enclave cities of Freetown and Monrovia.† To support their authority these new units have hired foreign contractors—foreign firms and mercenaries—to perform services formerly allotted to state bureaucracies. Closely recalling Rotberg’s definition, Reno points out how these new political units assume the ambiguous status of â€Å"non-state organizations,à ¢â‚¬  profoundly divergent from the traditional norms of the bureaucratic state (Reno 1997, 493). Evidently, these non-states cannot produce societal advancement. They undermine economic development, lead to overlapping jurisdictions, promote conflicts among elites, and intentionally destroy bureaucracies† (Reno, 1997, 494), so as to allow the rulers to profit from the pervasive absence of government. Historically, mercenary groups have thrived in similar environments, but political ambiguity and ethnic-based conflicts are making the line between right and wrong almost impossible to draw between mercenaries and private contractors. More sophisticated, visible and publicly traded companies could, it is feared, one day be found working within these non-states, providing services that are legitimate per se, to far less legal entities. So far, no major private military or security contractor has lent its services to rogue states or actors not recognized by the international commu nity – but it remains a distinct possibility. From all this the implication is clear: does the emergence of PMCs present a real challenge to state security, even to the existence of the state itself? And what impact, if any, have PMCs had on international security? Do they help to undermine or bolster it? Such questions will be posed and answered in the course of this investigation. To do so it will be necessary to assess the extent to which PMCs present a challenge. First, the study will consider the theoretical arguments about sovereignty and security, placing discussion within the context of how the monopoly of violence came to be attached to the state. By doing so it should be possible to lay the foundations on which one can consider the extent of the threat posed by PMCs. Secondly, the study analyses the nature of PMCs themselves as a post-Cold War phenomenon. Taking care to differentiate between different types of organisations as well as discussing similarities ad divergences with armies, the investigation focuses on wher e PMCs should be situated, and considers the problem of where privatization begins and ends. Thirdly, the study looks more specifically at examples of PMCs in action from different parts of the world. All too often, theoretical discussion can be misleading. Dealing empirically with specific cases in the world’s hot spots in which PMCs have been deployed, it would be possible to ascertain the real effects of PMCs on the ground as well as on security in general. By incorporating all three elements – the theoretical/historical, analytical and empirical – it should be possible to reach in conclusion a more accurate understanding of PMCs and their real impact on international security. 3. History and theory of state sovereignty 3.1. State and security in historico-theoretical perspective Before discussion can turn to the extent to which PMCs pose a threat to international security, it would be useful to consider the actor they are supposedly challenging: the state. More specifically, one should reflect on the foundations on which the state monopolises power, question how it developed to do so, and discuss the recent changes to the relationship between the state and security. From a historical point of view, it would of course be possible to trace the existence of the state back as far as the ancient Greeks. Even so, it would be more common and appropriate to pinpoint the direct antecedents of the modern state to the Renaissance when Italy emerged having highly-organised city states. Most important characteristics of these fledging cities were their ability to possess standing armies, organise complicated bureaucracies and institute a rule of law to which the population would adhere. (Heller, 1934, 8). Such a process saw its completion during the eighteenth and nineteenth century, when control, helped by improvements in communications, extended over vast regions, at times spanning the globe. What was the key to this development was the amount of power the state could control. But for a long time power had been divided among different agents who would not necessarily obey the wishes of those in power. Even when Charlemagne, for instance, managed to conquer Europe during the medieval period, he could still not claim he was the most powerful man on the continent, since his Empire was ultimately subjected to recognition from Rome which could, in the figure of the Pope, refuse spiritual recognition. Power could also be left in the hands of the nobility, who for a long time kept peasants in perpetual servitude without the state being able to have a say in the kind of relationship that was forged between master and servant. Many city states, too, which boasted rich cultural and commercial pasts, could also resist the advances of larger states within their territory. Examples such as Florence, Venice, Hamburg and Bremen spring to mind as resistors of this trend, and it is hardly a coincidence that these proud cities for a long time evaded the dictates of administrative centres of Rome and Berlin, delaying the emergence of Italy and Germany respectively as modern nation states. What was crucially important in the eventual emergence of the state was the ability to control the income of the people it subjugated – or more simply: taxes. At the outset taxes were levied as a temporary measure to fight wars but they were eventually made permanent following the One Hundred Year War, which raged between 1337 and 1453. Such a protracted war made it evident that a constant supply of finance to survive and triumph. Such a need in turn meant the creation of a more sophisticated bureaucracy that could effectively collect tax and use it for war. During the early modern period, the contributions of trade and commerce added further to a bulging budget, and the process of urbanisation which made this possible meant that central administrative organs as well as ruling monarchs would reside in towns and cities as a result. More important for the purposes of this investigation was the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 which established the principle of sovereignty. From this time onwards the state gradually established itself as the exclusive form of rule. Most memorably under King Louis XIV, the â€Å"Sun King†, self-appointed monarchs consolidate the supremacy of the state over the Church, towns, people and economy to the extent that it could hardly be challenged. Even if the veracity of Louis’ famous quip – â€Å"L’etat, c’est moi!†- has been questioned, the statement succinctly conveys not only the self-righteousness of the King, but also the importance that was attached to the state itself. For without it the King could hardly cling onto power. Such moves naturally affected the nature of armies too. No longer would hired mercenaries do the job in prosecuting war – they had to be replaced by professional standing armies who would not, unlike mercenaries be fore them, switch sides depending on the way the wind was blowing. Much of the reason why PMCs are striking is because they seem to represent a throwback to a time when foreign nationals could join armies of other countries without this ever causing a stir or leading to doubt about their allegiance. Such a problem never really arose when absolute monarchs held sway. The crucial point was that soldiers should express their allegiance to the king or queen – to the individual head of the state – and that would be sufficient. But with the development of the nation-state, in which it was no longer necessarily to have monarchs for politics to function – circumstances changed so that citizens had to pledge allegiance to the state masquerading as the fatherland, to an abstract concept of the state no less. Such disinterest in the kind of ruler the state embraces has been the hallmark to why the state has successfully remained the central force that it is still today. Concretely it was the philosopher Thomas Hobbes who first realised the full extent of the powers of the state as well as the willingness of people to be subjugated to it. In his classic book Leviathan, written in 1651, he described the natural condition in which there is neither state nor law. Only natural law – or ius naturalis – is present where everybody is free to do what they want. Such a state of affairs leads to all pursuing their own narrow interests, so that it quickly descends into a â€Å"war against all† in which everybody would need to live in constant fear of attacks on their own property, family and life. It is to avoid this situation that people come together to give up some of their freedom in return for guarantees of stability under a contract with Leviathan. Strikingly the Leviathan that Hobbes envisaged had almost unlimited power. Even though Hobbes conceded that citizens had the right of protest, he believed the state had the absolute right to control without which the existence of the state would be compromised. 3.2. Delegation of state competencies Much of the reason why Hobbes invested in Leviathan such radicalism can be explained by the circumstances in which he found himself at the time he came to write his treatise. For it represented a time of the English Civil War, which raged between 1642 and 1649, during which time conflict took place between the King, Charles I and the Parliamentarians who challenged the right of the King to absolute power. Even though the Parliamentarians eventually triumphed, this did little to change the nature of the state, and the basic idea that under contract the state is given exclusive control over the use of violence, and thus the maintenance of security, is something that still lives on. For if the security of the people over whom the state rules is to be at